＊上記画像はイメージです。

前回は模擬TOEFL問題のパッセージ作成について書いてみた。今度は設問作成について書いてみる。

３．設問の種類を決める。

TOEFL iBT のリーディング問題はだいたい設問の種類や傾向が決まっている。公式サイトによると

Factual Information and Negative Factual Information

Inference and Rhetorical Purpose

Vocabulary

Sentence Simplification

Insert Text Question

Prose Summary

の６つである。このあたりの詳細は省略。興味のある方は公式サイトのサンプルをご覧ください。別に奇を衒った問題はないので、作問自体はそれほど難しくない。ということで、実際に作ってみた設問を以下にシェアしてみる。

Woodpeckers: Masters of Forest Engineering

Woodpeckers are found across continents from North and South America to Asia, Europe, and Africa, boasting a current count of 239 species worldwide. These remarkable birds exhibit a diverse array of adaptations that enable them to play pivotal roles in the forest ecosystem. Their distinctive heads, resembling hammers, and bills, functioning like chisels, reflect their roles as skilled woodworkers, feathered architects, and ultimately ecosystem engineers.

As ecosystem engineers, woodpeckers modify their environment, shape the landscape and influence the distribution and abundance of other species in significant ways. Their actions, such as excavating nesting cavities and foraging for insects and larvae, have cascading effects on the ecosystem, impacting everything from habitat availability to nutrient cycling. Principally, woodpeckers act as architects of their environment, sculpting it to suit their needs and inadvertently benefiting numerous other organisms within the same ecological community in the process.

The woodpecker's journey as an engineer commences with its specialized anatomy. Their heads, aptly named "drummers," function not only as communication tools for resonating messages through tree trunks, but also as instruments of foraging. Utilizing their sharp bills, woodpeckers meticulously chisel through bark, revealing a concealed abundance of insects and larvae. Additionally, some species tap into sap by fashioning small holes in the bark, which not only attracts insects that feed on the sap but also draws other bird species, including woodpeckers themselves, seeking to prey upon these insects. This concerted effort not only satiates their hunger but also serves as a natural pest control mechanism, effectively regulating insect populations and contributing to the delicate balance of the forest environment.

The woodpecker's impact extends far beyond its own needs. The cavities they meticulously excavate, initially serving as nesting sites, become invaluable real estate for other species. These 'universal trademarks' transform into cozy havens for various forest inhabitants, including owls, squirrels, tits, wood ducks, flying squirrels, nuthatches, and many more. These creatures find refuge and a platform to raise their own young within the sheltered confines of woodpecker-carved cavities. In essence, woodpeckers become unwitting landlords. Most woodpecker species tend to excavate new nest holes every breeding season, providing additional abodes for other forest citizens each year. They are also benevolent carpenters and tireless architects.

Their influence does not end with nesting cavities. As seasons change, the cycle of life unfolds. Woodpeckers, through their foraging and cavity creation, inadvertently damage trees beyond repair. Their relentless drilling weakens the structural integrity of the tree, causing irreparable harm. Over time, these injuries accumulate, leading to the gradual decline of the tree's health. Eventually, the tree succumbs to the inevitable and falls. However, death is not an ending, but rather a transformation. The fallen tree becomes a sanctuary for a myriad of forest inhabitants, serving as a veritable banquet table for decomposers such as beetles, termites, fungi, bacteria, and molds. These organisms swiftly colonize the fallen wood, break down its complex structures, and return essential nutrients to the soil. This decomposition process enriches the soil and supports the growth of future generations of plants, maintaining the healthy cycle of the forest ecosystem. 

In this intricate dance of life and decay, woodpeckers perform a crucial role in facilitating the essential mechanism of nutrient cycling, acting as a catalyst to the forest's rebirth and regrowth process. While their drilling may seem destructive at first glance, it ultimately contributes to the overall ecological health and balance of their habitat.

All things considered, the unassuming woodpecker is far more than just a drummer or a carpenter. It is an architect of habitats and a facilitator of critical ecological processes. In other words, they are excellent ecosystem engineers. Their story exemplifies the interconnectedness of life, where seemingly individual actions have far-reaching consequences that shape the very fabric of the ecosystem. By understanding their role as an ecosystem engineer, we gain a deeper appreciation for the intricate web of life and the delicate balance that maintains and sustains the natural world.

Woodpeckers are found across continents from North and South America to Asia, Europe, and Africa, boasting a current count of 239 species worldwide. These remarkable birds exhibit a diverse array of adaptations that enable them to play pivotal roles in the forest ecosystem. Their distinctive heads, resembling hammers, and bills, functioning like chisels, reflect their roles as skilled woodworkers, feathered architects, and ultimately ecosystem engineers.

1. The word “diverse” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to

A. varied
B. peculiar
C. converged
D. singular

As ecosystem engineers, woodpeckers modify their environment, shape the landscape and influence the distribution and abundance of other species in significant ways. Their actions, such as excavating nesting cavities and foraging for insects and larvae, have cascading effects on the ecosystem, impacting everything from habitat availability to nutrient cycling. Principally, woodpeckers act as architects of their environment, sculpting it to suit their needs and inadvertently benefiting numerous other organisms within the same ecological community in the process.

2. The word “inadvertently” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to 

A. thoughtfully
B. undeliberately
C. attentively
D. consequently

The woodpecker's journey as an engineer commences with its specialized anatomy. Their heads, aptly named "drummers," function not only as communication tools for resonating messages through tree trunks, but also as instruments of foraging. Utilizing their sharp bills, woodpeckers meticulously chisel through bark, revealing a concealed abundance of insects and larvae. Additionally, some species tap into sap by fashioning small holes in the bark, which not only attracts insects that feed on the sap but also draws other bird species, including woodpeckers themselves, seeking to prey upon these insects. This concerted effort not only satiates their hunger but also serves as a natural pest control mechanism, effectively regulating insect populations and contributing to the delicate balance of the forest environment.

3. In paragraph 3, each of the following is mentioned as a food source for woodpeckers EXCEPT

A. insects
B. larvae
C. sap
D. other bird species

4. The word “meticulously” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to

A. temporarily
B. recklessly
C. elaborately
D. roughly

5. What can be inferred from paragraph 4 about woodpeckers’ roles in the forest?

A. They prefer to reuse their nesting holes from the previous breeding season.
B. They offer housing to many other creatures indirectly. 
C. They occasionally share their nesting sites with other animal species when raising young.
D. They purposefully help out other forest dwellers.

6. In paragraph 4, how does the author describe the roles of woodpeckers?

A. By being emotionally neutral
B. By giving examples
C. By using metaphors
D. By making comparisons 

Their influence does not end with nesting cavities. As seasons change, the cycle of life unfolds. Woodpeckers, through their foraging and cavity creation, inadvertently damage trees beyond repair. Their relentless drilling weakens the structural integrity of the tree, causing irreparable harm. Over time, these injuries accumulate, leading to the gradual decline of the tree's health. Eventually, the tree succumbs to the inevitable and falls. However, death is not an ending, but rather a transformation. The fallen tree becomes a sanctuary for a myriad of forest inhabitants, serving as a veritable banquet table for decomposers such as beetles, termites, fungi, bacteria, and molds. These organisms swiftly colonize the fallen wood, break down its complex structures, and return essential nutrients to the soil. This decomposition process enriches the soil and supports the growth of future generations of plants, maintaining the healthy cycle of the forest ecosystem. 

7. According to paragraph 5, how do woodpeckers contribute to the maintenance of the forest’s healthy cycle?

A. By damaging trees 
B. By feeding on tree decomposers
C. By drilling as many holes as possible in the tree bark
D. By consuming essential nutrients

8. Which of the following best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

In this intricate dance of life and decay, woodpeckers perform a crucial role in facilitating the essential mechanism of nutrient cycling, acting as a catalyst to the forest's rebirth and regrowth process. While their drilling may seem destructive at first glance, it ultimately contributes to the overall ecological health and balance of their habitat.
＊下線を引けないのでハイライト箇所を太字にしています

A. No matter how destructive it may seem, their drilling actually never does their habitat any ecological harm. 
B. Their drilling is an important part of the ecological metabolism, although its impact is hard to see at first glance.
C. Harmful as it may seem, their drilling does not inflict as much damage on their natural habitat. 
D. Contrary to what it might seem, their drilling benefits the entire well-being of their environment in the end.

9. In paragraph 4 of the passage, there is a missing sentence. The paragraph is repeated below and shows four letters (A, B, C, and D) that indicate where the following sentence could be added. These spaces are meticulously designed to provide a peaceful respite from the constant urban clamor. Where would the sentence best fit?

In this respect, they are not just unintentional landlords.

Where would the sentence best fit?

The woodpecker's impact extends far beyond its own needs. [A] The cavities they meticulously excavate, initially serving as nesting sites, become invaluable real estate for other species. [B] These 'universal trademarks' transform into cozy havens for various forest inhabitants, including owls, squirrels, tits, wood ducks, flying squirrels, nuthatches, and many more. These creatures find refuge and a platform to raise their own young within the sheltered confines of woodpecker-carved cavities. [C] In essence, woodpeckers become unwitting landlords. Most woodpecker species tend to excavate new nest holes every breeding season, providing additional abodes for other forest citizens each year. [D] They are also benevolent carpenters and tireless architects.

10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Write your answer choices in the spaces where they belong. You can either write the letter of your answer choice or you can copy the sentence.

Found worldwide, woodpeckers play a vital role in shaping their forest ecosystems.
・
・
・

A. Their foraging serves as a natural pest control measure. 
B. They communicate not only by crying but also by drumming. 
C. They not only excavate homes for themselves but also create havens for other species. 
D. They survive and thrive in forest environments as well as in non-forest environments. 
E. Their seemingly destructive drilling behavior greatly contributes to decomposition and nutrient cycling.
F. They change trees every breeding season in order to avoid inflicting excessive damage on the same tree.

では設問と選択肢を一つずつ見ていきながら、どんな風に作問したのか、作問しながら何を考えていたのかを書いていってみようと思う。

1. The word “diverse” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to

A. varied
B. peculiar
C. converged
D. singular

まずは Vocabulary 問題。これは正直、ボーナス問題。TOEFL iBT で61点を目指すような人でも、正解必須の難易度。日本語でもダイーバシティと言うように、普通レベルの語彙。素直に varied を選ぶべし。peculiar は映画『 ミス・ペレグリンと奇妙なこどもたち 』の原題が Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children のように、strange や odd の仲間の語。キツツキはまあまあ変な鳥なので、引っかかる人は引っかかるかもしれない。converged は、diverse？形が似たやつに divergence があるな？その反対語の convergenceを形容詞（分詞）にするか、で置いた。singular は単数形という意味だが、近年だとシンギュラリティ＝特異点が話題になっている。そこから special という意味もある。これも引っかかる人は引っかかるかも？

As ecosystem engineers, woodpeckers modify their environment, shape the landscape and influence the distribution and abundance of other species in significant ways. Their actions, such as excavating nesting cavities and foraging for insects and larvae, have cascading effects on the ecosystem, impacting everything from habitat availability to nutrient cycling. Principally, woodpeckers act as architects of their environment, sculpting it to suit their needs and inadvertently benefiting numerous other organisms within the same ecological community in the process.

2. The word “inadvertently” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to 

A. thoughtfully
B. undeliberately
C. attentively
D. consequently

これも TOEFL iBT 受験者なら知っておきたい・・・と思うのだが、英単語3800によると inadvertent が Rank 4？ホンマかいな？ thoughtfully は引っかけ。キツツキって良い鳥やん？と素直に受け取らないように。sculpting it to suit their needs and inadvertently benefiting numerous other organisms は音読すると sculpting it to suit THEIR needs, and inadvertently benefiting numerous other organisms のようになるはず。attentively は attention の意味が分かれば類推可能。consequently も引っかけ。文脈的に意味が通らないことはないが、undeliberately ＝図らずも、のような意味は一切ない。

The woodpecker's journey as an engineer commences with its specialized anatomy. Their heads, aptly named "drummers," function not only as communication tools for resonating messages through tree trunks, but also as instruments of foraging. Utilizing their sharp bills, woodpeckers meticulously chisel through bark, revealing a concealed abundance of insects and larvae. Additionally, some species tap into sap by fashioning small holes in the bark, which not only attracts insects that feed on the sap but also draws other bird species, including woodpeckers themselves, seeking to prey upon these insects. This concerted effort not only satiates their hunger but also serves as a natural pest control mechanism, effectively regulating insect populations and contributing to the delicate balance of the forest environment.

3. In paragraph 3, each of the following is mentioned as a food source for woodpeckers EXCEPT

A. insects
B. larvae
C. sap
D. other bird species

Negative Factual Information の設問。これは素直に指定パラグラフを読もう。というか、キツツキが猛禽類か？と疑問を抱ければ、それでも解ける。larvaは幼虫のことで、larvaeは複数形。発音は ラーヴィー。これはラテン語の語形変化。TOEFL だと他には alga - algae、nebula - nebulae あたりがお馴染みかな。

The woodpecker's impact extends far beyond its own needs. The cavities they meticulously excavate, initially serving as nesting sites, become invaluable real estate for other species. These 'universal trademarks' transform into cozy havens for various forest inhabitants, including owls, squirrels, tits, wood ducks, flying squirrels, nuthatches, and many more. These creatures find refuge and a platform to raise their own young within the sheltered confines of woodpecker-carved cavities. In essence, woodpeckers become unwitting landlords. Most woodpecker species tend to excavate new nest holes every breeding season, providing additional abodes for other forest citizens each year. They are also benevolent carpenters and tireless architects.

4. The word “meticulously” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to

A. temporarily
B. recklessly
C. elaborately
D. roughly

Vocabulary 問題。3800によると meticulously は Rank 3 らしい。個人的には Rank 2.5 ぐらいに思える。temporarily は tempo ＝ time で覚えよう。一時的にという意味で、これは不正解。recklessly は reckless ＝ 不注意に、無鉄砲にの副詞。roughly は雑に、大雑把にという意味でmeticulously とは正反対。elaborately は中に labor ＝労働があることに注意。手が込んでいるということで、これが正解。なお、elaborate の中に labor が見えるようになれば、collaboration の中には labor が見えるようになって、意味もストンと腹落ちすることだろう。

5. What can be inferred from paragraph 4 about woodpeckers’ roles in the forest?

A. They prefer to reuse their nesting holes from the previous breeding season.
B. They offer housing to many other creatures indirectly. 
C. They occasionally share their nesting sites with other animal species when raising young.
D. They purposefully help out other forest dwellers.

Inference and Rhetorical Purpose 問題。直前の Vocabulary 問題がちゃんと解けていれば、Ｄは真っ先に除外できる。ＡとＣは、そんな記述はパラグラフ内にはない。畢竟、Ｂが正解。ちなみに TOEFL iBTのパッセージでは例示の前の部分に注目するのが鉄則。ここでは including owls, squirrels, tits, wood ducks, flying squirrels, nuthatches, and many more と様々な森の生き物たちが挙げられているところがそれで、 The cavities they meticulously excavate, initially serving as nesting sites, become invaluable real estate for other species. からキツツキの空けた穴がその他の動物種にとっての貴重な不動産＝住処になっていることが読み取れる。ここからも正解はＢだと判断できる（というか、そういう風にパッセージを微調整して、設問を作っている）。

6. In paragraph 4, how does the author describe the roles of woodpeckers?

A. By being emotionally neutral
B. By giving examples
C. By using metaphors
D. By making comparisons 

これは少々不適切問題。TOEFL ITP だと稀にパッセージのトーンや著者の Writing Style を問う問題は出るが、iBTではまず出ない。少なくともＣＪは見たことも聞いたこともない。では何故こんな問題を作ったかというと、うちの会社で作成中のTOEFL用のプレースメントテストが、iBTとITP共用になる予定だから。まあ、これぐらいはお目こぼしを。

実際の TOEFL パッセージでも、比喩を使うのはよくある。Swimming Machines ＝魚のパッセージで何度も飛行機が持ち出されたり、など。このパラグラフでは real estate, trade marks, landlords, carpenters, architects など、およそ動物学や環境学とは関係なさそうな表現がたくさん出てくる。これらはすべて比喩。したがってＣが正解。どういうわけか ChatGPT と Google Gemini に解かせると正解はＢだと主張する。このへんが人工知能の現時点の限界かな・・・

Their influence does not end with nesting cavities. As seasons change, the cycle of life unfolds. Woodpeckers, through their foraging and cavity creation, inadvertently damage trees beyond repair. Their relentless drilling weakens the structural integrity of the tree, causing irreparable harm. Over time, these injuries accumulate, leading to the gradual decline of the tree's health. Eventually, the tree succumbs to the inevitable and falls. However, death is not an ending, but rather a transformation. The fallen tree becomes a sanctuary for a myriad of forest inhabitants, serving as a veritable banquet table for decomposers such as beetles, termites, fungi, bacteria, and molds. These organisms swiftly colonize the fallen wood, break down its complex structures, and return essential nutrients to the soil. This decomposition process enriches the soil and supports the growth of future generations of plants, maintaining the healthy cycle of the forest ecosystem. 

7. According to paragraph 5, how do woodpeckers contribute to the maintenance of the forest’s healthy cycle?

A. By damaging trees 
B. By feeding on tree decomposers
C. By drilling as many holes as possible in the tree bark
D. By consuming essential nutrients

Factual information 問題。キツツキがどのようにして森の健康的なライフサイクル維持に貢献しているのかを問う問題で、正解はＡ。一見するとマイナスに見えるが、一本の木にとってのマイナスは森全体にとってみれば必ずしもマイナスではないという点が面白い。Ｂは引っかけで、確かに倒木内で繁殖する虫やその幼虫を食べることはあるかもしれないが、それは明言されてはいない。Ｃはas many holes as possible の部分が不正解。パッセージをrecklessly に読んでしまうとＤを選んでしまう恐れあり。 

8. Which of the following best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

In this intricate dance of life and decay, woodpeckers perform a crucial role in facilitating the essential mechanism of nutrient cycling, acting as a catalyst to the forest's rebirth and regrowth process. While their drilling may seem destructive at first glance, it ultimately contributes to the overall ecological health and balance of their habitat.
＊下線を引けないのでハイライト箇所を太字にしています

A. No matter how destructive it may seem, their drilling actually never does their habitat any ecological harm. 
B. Their drilling is an important part of the ecological metabolism, although its impact is hard to see at first glance.
C. Harmful as it may seem, their drilling does not inflict as much damage on their natural habitat. 
D. Contrary to what it might seem, their drilling benefits the entire well-being of their environment in the end.

10問あったら必ず8番目に出てくる Sentence Simplification 問題。これはもう語彙力と文法力、そしてここに至るまでの設問、特に Factual Information系問題をしっかり解けているかどうかにかかっている。Ａは前半はＯＫだが、後半の never does their habitat any ecological harm が不適。do ～ harm ＝ ～に害を与える、は知っておきたい。Ｂは引っかけ。前半はＯＫだが、hard to see at first glance が不適。at first glance はあくまでも木をつつくという営為が「一見すると」環境に悪そうに見える、という意味で使われている。ＣはＡと同工異曲。Harmful as it may seem  ＝ Although it may seem harmful になる。Tired as I was, I couldn't get to sleep. ＝「疲れていたけれど寝付けなかった」という例文でこの構造と意味を丸暗記しておこう。正解のＤはGemini にハイライトのセンテンスを何通りかにパラフレーズしてくれ、と依頼して出来上がったものの一つに、in the end を自分でくっつけた。

9. In paragraph 4 of the passage, there is a missing sentence. The paragraph is repeated below and shows four letters (A, B, C, and D) that indicate where the following sentence could be added. These spaces are meticulously designed to provide a peaceful respite from the constant urban clamor. Where would the sentence best fit?

In this respect, they are not just unintentional landlords.

Where would the sentence best fit?

The woodpecker's impact extends far beyond its own needs. [A] The cavities they meticulously excavate, initially serving as nesting sites, become invaluable real estate for other species. [B] These 'universal trademarks' transform into cozy havens for various forest inhabitants, including owls, squirrels, tits, wood ducks, flying squirrels, nuthatches, and many more. These creatures find refuge and a platform to raise their own young within the sheltered confines of woodpecker-carved cavities. [C] In essence, woodpeckers become unwitting landlords. Most woodpecker species tend to excavate new nest holes every breeding season, providing additional abodes for other forest citizens each year. [D] They are also benevolent carpenters and tireless architects.

これも10問中9番目に必ず出てくる Insert Text 問題。TOEIC の Part 6 や Part 7 と同じでアプローチで解く。基本的には

① this や that などの代名詞や指示形容詞を挿入対象のセンテンス内で探す
　有り　→　その語の示す内容を明らかにする
　無し　→　[A][B][C][D]の前後に代名詞や指示形容詞を探す

⇒指示語の指す内容に合致するものを一つ前のセンテンスで探す

➁ 接続詞・接続表現をを挿入対象のセンテンス内で探す
　有り　→　順接なら前後の意味のつながり、逆接なら前後の意味の反転を探す
　無し　→　[A][B][C][D]の前後に接続詞・接続表現を探す

③ 文脈で合うかどうか考える

そこら中にいっぱいいるTOEIC講師はなぜか③を推すことが多いけれど、１～２年前に公式本で調べたら、TOEICの文挿入問題も①のアプローチで３～５割は解けるけどね。➁まで併せれば６割ちょいかな。TOEFL iBTはＯＧやら何やらで以前に調べた時、①で５割、①＋➁で７割ちょっと解けた気がする。慣れれば文挿入は20～30秒で正解できる。

ここでは In this respectが、指示形容詞＋接続表現。この意味では、キツツキは単なる家主ではない、ということは、直前にキツツキが家主になっている、住処を貸しているという記述があればよい。Ａは不適。ＢはＯＫ。Ｃは可能だが、すぐ後ろに landloads が続き不自然。ＤはＯＫ。ではＢとＤのどちらかということになるが、not just と来たら、but also が続くべきなので、正解はＤとなる。これはちょっと簡単すぎたか。

10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Write your answer choices in the spaces where they belong. You can either write the letter of your answer choice or you can copy the sentence.

Found worldwide, woodpeckers play a vital role in shaping their forest ecosystems.
・
・
・

A. Their foraging serves as a natural pest control measure. 
B. They communicate not only by crying but also by drumming. 
C. They not only excavate homes for themselves but also create havens for other species. 
D. They survive and thrive in forest environments as well as in non-forest environments. 
E. Their seemingly destructive drilling behavior greatly contributes to decomposition and nutrient cycling.
F. They change trees every breeding season in order to avoid inflicting excessive damage on the same tree.

必ず10番目に出てくる Prose Summary 問題。2019年8月から、カテゴリ分け問題がなくなって、すべて Prose Summary問題に統一されたのは個人的には歓迎したい。これも慣れれば簡単。極端な話、本文を読まなくても正解できることが多い。やり方はこの記事とかこの記事を参照のこと。

こちらのサマリーの最初の一文と正解選択肢は Google Gemini に作らせた。パッセージ全体を読み込ませて、Summarize the passage into 4 sentences. と命じたところ、まあまあ良い感じのアウトプットだったので、それを少し手直しした。サマリー問題も、結局はそこに至るまでの設問にちゃんと正解できていれば難しいことは何もない。正解はＡ、Ｃ、Ｅ。

Ａ：キツツキは木に穴をあけて昆虫や幼虫を食べる＝〇　エンジニアとしての特性は弱いが、捕食行動がその他の生物種や環境全体にとって有意な結果を伴っていることは見過ごしてはならない。
Ｂ：communicateを目にした瞬間に✖と判断せねばならない。
Ｃ：5番が解けていれば、見た瞬間に〇だと思えるはず。
Ｄ：non-forest environments に生きるキツツキも実は存在するが、パッセージでは全く触れられていないので✖である。
Ｅ：8番が解けていれば目にした瞬間に〇だと思えるはず。
Ｆ：前半はＯＫだが、後半が不適。キツツキは木に穴を開けすぎて、根と葉の間の水分や栄養の循環を阻害してしまう生き物。ただ、１本の木にとってのマイナスが森全体にとってのマイナスとイコールではない、というところが自然の interconnectednessの妙なのだろう。

では、今度は同じネタを使って、リスニング問題を作り方をシェアしてみたい。乞うご期待。